The relationship between the papacy and Charlemagne is one that demonstrates which of the following? Cooperation between the papacy and European monarchs

Conflict between the papacy and European monarchs

Ability of the papacy and European monarchs to act independently of each other

Ability of European monarchs to limit the power of the papacy

An informal structure in a bureaucracy would be something like so-called "office politics". where there's a formal structure set up for the organization, but then an informal subculture as well that has a way of organizing the bureaucracy further. this can be positive because it sets up an added degree of organization, albeit informal, within the bureaucracy.