Which of the following constitutes both a breach of confidentiality (the research data have been disclosed, counter to the agreement between researcher and subjects) and a violation of subjects’ privacy (the right of the individuals to be protected against intrusion into their personal lives or affairs)?
a. A researcher asks cocaine users to provide names and contact information of other cocaine users who might qualify for a study.
b. A faculty member makes identifiable data about sexual behavior available to graduate students, although the subjects were assured that the data would be de-identified.
c. A researcher, who is a guest, audio-records conversations at a series of private dinner parties to assess gender roles, without informing participants.
d. In order to eliminate the effect of observation on behavior, a researcher attends a support group and records interactions without informing the attendees.