Total institution refers to the social arrangement in society in which all daily activities are conducted in masses, tightly scheduled and prearranged as a form of social control and institutionalization.

the old way of life was represented by superstition, an angry god, and absolute submission to authority. the thinkers of the age of reason ushered in a new way of thinking. this new way championed the accomplishments of humankind. individuals did not have to accept despair. science and reason could bring happiness and progress. kings did not rule by divine right. they had an obligation to their subjects. europeans pondered the implications for nearly a century. americans put them into practice first.

d. the polar jet stream   lies between the polar easterlies and trade winds should be your answer

permafrost layer, it exists beneath a layer of soil, rock or sediment.