In operant conditioning studies, the subject’s motivational state is most typically operationally defined by:
(a) observing a subject's behavior over long period of time
(b) using a type of reinforcement that the experimenter knows that the subject usually likes
(c) depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus item for a period of time
(d) using a novel stimulus that the subject is sure to like

(C) depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus item for a period of time

Explanation:

Operant conditioning is a method of learning which occurs through reward and punishment of a behavior. This question talks about the motivational state of the subject, and option (c) defines the positive punishment- which says that people are being motivated to do something when they want to get something they like. And for that, it's necessary to note what are the likes and dislikes of a person, and you have to take that away for which they are being motivated to get.

answer; (d) anthropology;

    racial conflict and discrimination has existed ever since man learned to kill with rocks and bones. these conflicts arose from disputes between territory, power, wealth, religion, or simple difference. some of the most infamous racial disputes include slavery, the holocaust, and the civil rights movement.

    these listed disputes often resulted in casualties from all sides. riots, wars, imprisonment, and lynching are all commonly associated with racial conflict on severe levels.

      however, racism is an improving issue in recent decades. people are being more accepting and welcoming of diverse populations. though, the world isn't perfect and it will take much more time, if ever, until the world is rid of racism.