The following are all programs in which the government redistributes income except:
a. medical benefits
c. a proportional tax system
b. cash transfers
d. in-kind benefits

The correct answer is "D".

"in-kind" beneifts are those that are not included in an employee's wages. They are also called "fringe benefits", as they do not consist on monetary benefits but rather benefits that can indirectly benefit the individuals economic condition. Example of these are, company cars or private medical insurance payed by the employer.

These benefits are not taxed by the government.

by creating a labor shortage that pushed the continent toward a market economy