characterized the United States between the late 1870s and the 1930s. During this period, federalism resembled a layer cake in that each level of government was active in distinct spheres of jurisdiction. Cooperative federalism, which emerged in the 1930s, blurred those jurisdictional distinctions as the federal government expanded its involvement into policy domains previously handled by states. Until the 1970s, the federal government elicited the cooperation of states to achieve its objectives primarily by providing intergovernmental grants.