During the 19th century, the powerful nations of Europe "carved up" Africa into colonies and territories. Before colonization, how were the borders in Africa established?

A)Borders were formed by rivers, mountains and other geographic features.

B)Borders were determined by allegiance to a central leader or a community.

C)Borders generally did not exist before the colonization of Africa.

D)Borders were maintained by military leaders who worked to separate religious groups.

representative government

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after a more than a decade and a half of combating al qaeda (aq) in afghanistan and pakistan,

the united states faces a diverse array of threats from al qaeda affiliates in the middle east and

africa. while senior al qaeda figures reportedly remain based in pakistan, the network includes

a number of affiliates across the middle east and africa including al qaeda in the arabian

peninsula (aqap), al qaeda in the islamic maghreb (aqim), and al shabaab. al qaeda also

retains a small but possibly growing presence in afghanistan. u.s. officials have stated that al

qaeda still maintains a foothold in syria through its ties to hay’at tahrir al sham (formerly

known as the nusra front), though the exact nature of that relationship may be evolving. this

report examines the threat posed by al qaeda affiliates in the middle east and africa as described

by u.s. officials and outside observers, as well as the u.s. approach to date in responding to these

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