The results from research have been known to produce harms to members of the sampled population who do not actually participate in the research study.

An example of the type of research that could result in group harms by stigmatizing members of the group (even for individuals who do not participate in the research) is:

a. a study designed to investigate a genetic link between dna samples found at a prehistoric central asian archeological site and west coast american indian tribes

b. a hair restoration study

c. a study to establish national reading standards in ten year old children

d. a study on the efficacy of a new birth control device in middle aged women